Olympic champions had to undergo drug testing for the first time at the 1968 Games in Mexico City. There was something vaguely comical about the first drugs disqualification - Swedish modern pentathlete Hans Gunnar-Liljenwall tested positive for excessive alcohol - but there has been little to laugh about since in the battle against drugs cheats.
Canadian Ben Johnson is the most notorious drugs cheat of them all. At the Seoul Games in 1988, Johnson won the 100 metres in a world record 9.79 seconds, leaving defending champion Carl Lewis trailing in his wake. But then Johnson tested positive for the anabolic steroid Stanozolol. He was stripped of the Olympic title and world record and was sent home in disgrace. American Lewis was given the gold medal.
It is a pity that the scandal became the abiding memory of the Seoul Games, yet Johnson is by no means the only high-profile culprit. It was only in December 2007 that American sprinter Marion Jones - the first female track and field athlete to win five medals at a single Olympics - was stripped of the three gold and two bronze medals she won at the 2000 Sydney Games after she admitted to using steroids.
Athletes Disqualified
At the 2004 Athens Games, 26 athletes were disqualified for violation of the IOC anti-doping rules, yet it can be argued that the high number had less to do with an increase in cheating and more to do with new measures introduced to catch the cheats.
On 4th February 1999, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) was formed to oversee how drug testing is carried out across sports, and on 21st August 2001, Montreal in Canada was chosen as the agency's permanent headquarters. Testing procedures for prohibited substances are constantly evolving. At the 2000 Sydney Games, tests to detect erythropoietin (EPO) - believed to have been widely used in endurance sports - and blood tests were performed for the first time.
At Copenhagen in March 2003, the World Anti-Doping Code was signed at the World Conference on Doping in Sport. It represented an important milestone in the fight against doping, as the IOC insisted that all International Federations sign the code prior to the Athens Games or risk exclusion. Governments were also called on to accept the code and sign it.
Athletes Disqualified
A total of 3,667 anti-doping controls - 2,926 urine and 741 blood tests - were conducted in Athens. That was 25 per cent more than in Sydney four years earlier and resulted in 26 violations of anti-doping rules compared to the 11 in Sydney. In addition, athletes are increasingly subjected to out-of-competition testing and sanctioned when there is a suspicion of foul play, such as repeatedly being unavailable to give urine samples.
The battle between WADA and the drug cheats will rage on in Beijing, with new human growth hormone (HGH) tests due to be scientifically validated in time for the Games in August. HGH is believed to be one of the most widely abused performance-enhancing drugs in sports, but it has been hard to detect. The existing test, introduced at the Athens Games, has been implemented on a limited scale and has yet to yield any positive results.
HGH, a hormone synthesized and secreted by cells in the anterior pituitary gland located at the base of the brain, plays a key role in bone, muscle and organ growth. WADA claim that tests carried out with the newly developed antibody kits will expand the HGH detection window beyond the 48 hours after it has been injected, thereby improving on the efficiency of the existing test. The IOC's message is clear: zero tolerance for cheats.
Showing posts with label history of olympic. Show all posts
Showing posts with label history of olympic. Show all posts
Sunday, August 23, 2009
Greatest Olympic Controversies
Controversy had surrounded South African-born Zola Budd long before the final of the women's 3,000 metres at the 1984 Olympics in Los Angeles. South Africa was not allowed to compete at the Games because of apartheid, but Budd, a waif-like distance runner who competed barefooted, had a British-born grandfather.
The Bloemfontein-born 18-year-old also had the backing of the Daily Mail newspaper, which allegedly paid £100,000 for her story, and was brought to England and fast-tracked into becoming a British citizen in time to compete in Los Angeles.
There was fury among anti-apartheid campaigners at the decision to grant Budd citizenship, but that paled into insignificance compared to the uproar that followed the 3,000m final.
Golden Girl
Mary Decker, the golden girl of American athletics, had wanted to run in both the 1,500m and 3,000m in Los Angeles, but the events overlapped so she pinned all her hopes on the longer race.
The race was beyond the halfway point when Budd and Decker collided twice in quick succession. Budd, barefoot as usual, was in front and Decker's spikes dug deep into the British runner's right heel. Decker tripped, was pitched forward and crashed to the floor on the infield grass, clutching her right thigh. Unable to get up, the American was carried from the track in tears, her race and her Olympics over.
Budd, her heel gouged and ears ringing with boos from the American crowd, ran on but was clearly affected by the incident and could finish only seventh as Romanian Maricica Puica took gold.
Apology Rejected
Afterwards, a distraught Decker refused to accept Budd's apology and said: "Zola tried to cut in without being far enough ahead. There was no question but that she was in the wrong."
Initially, track officials seemed to agree with Decker and Budd was disqualified for obstruction, but just one hour later, once officials had viewed films of the race, Budd was reinstated.
The following summer, Budd and Decker met in a big-money showdown at Crystal Palace and Decker won easily, with Budd fourth. Budd continued to compete in Britain for four years after the 1984 Games and ran a world record 14 minutes 48.07 seconds for 5,000m in 1985, but could never shake off the political controversy nor overcome criticism over the clash with Decker. She returned to South Africa in 1988.
Magic Controversy
Earvin 'Magic' Johnson was at the centre of a controversy that raged before the 1992 Games in Barcelona. Australia's basketball team doctor, Brian Sando, questioned whether Australia should play in the Olympics against Johnson because the USA legend is HIV positive.
The remarks provoked outrage in the United States and the Australian government acted quickly to quell the war of words. Gareth Evans, the Australian minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade, dismissed talk of a boycott and said: "A boycott is not something that the Australian Government should remotely consider in relation to any individual like Magic Johnson. The story that Australia has been considering a boycott is completely false."
The Bloemfontein-born 18-year-old also had the backing of the Daily Mail newspaper, which allegedly paid £100,000 for her story, and was brought to England and fast-tracked into becoming a British citizen in time to compete in Los Angeles.
There was fury among anti-apartheid campaigners at the decision to grant Budd citizenship, but that paled into insignificance compared to the uproar that followed the 3,000m final.
Golden Girl
Mary Decker, the golden girl of American athletics, had wanted to run in both the 1,500m and 3,000m in Los Angeles, but the events overlapped so she pinned all her hopes on the longer race.
The race was beyond the halfway point when Budd and Decker collided twice in quick succession. Budd, barefoot as usual, was in front and Decker's spikes dug deep into the British runner's right heel. Decker tripped, was pitched forward and crashed to the floor on the infield grass, clutching her right thigh. Unable to get up, the American was carried from the track in tears, her race and her Olympics over.
Budd, her heel gouged and ears ringing with boos from the American crowd, ran on but was clearly affected by the incident and could finish only seventh as Romanian Maricica Puica took gold.
Apology Rejected
Afterwards, a distraught Decker refused to accept Budd's apology and said: "Zola tried to cut in without being far enough ahead. There was no question but that she was in the wrong."
Initially, track officials seemed to agree with Decker and Budd was disqualified for obstruction, but just one hour later, once officials had viewed films of the race, Budd was reinstated.
The following summer, Budd and Decker met in a big-money showdown at Crystal Palace and Decker won easily, with Budd fourth. Budd continued to compete in Britain for four years after the 1984 Games and ran a world record 14 minutes 48.07 seconds for 5,000m in 1985, but could never shake off the political controversy nor overcome criticism over the clash with Decker. She returned to South Africa in 1988.
Magic Controversy
Earvin 'Magic' Johnson was at the centre of a controversy that raged before the 1992 Games in Barcelona. Australia's basketball team doctor, Brian Sando, questioned whether Australia should play in the Olympics against Johnson because the USA legend is HIV positive.
The remarks provoked outrage in the United States and the Australian government acted quickly to quell the war of words. Gareth Evans, the Australian minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade, dismissed talk of a boycott and said: "A boycott is not something that the Australian Government should remotely consider in relation to any individual like Magic Johnson. The story that Australia has been considering a boycott is completely false."
Olympic Games Award Ceremonies
Champions of the ancient Games in Olympia were crowned with a wreath, cut from a sacred olive tree with a golden sickle, and statues were erected in their honour next to those of the Gods. The sporting heroes of the modern Olympics receive medals - gold, silver and bronze - and the names of all the medallists are engraved on the walls of the main stadium where the Games take place.
From the first modern Olympiad, in 1896, until the 1928 Games in Amsterdam, it was traditional for the medal presentations to take place during the closing ceremony. At Los Angeles, in 1932, the medals were awarded after each competition.
Designs change from Olympiad to Olympiad, but medals must be at least 60 millimetres in diameter and 3mm thick. The winner's medal is made of gold, using a minimum of six grams of fine gold, while the second and third-place medals are made of silver.
Controversial Ceremonies
There is a long history of controversial medal ceremonies at the Olympics. At the 1936 Berlin Games, Korean marathon runners Sohn Kee-chung and Nam Seung-yong were forced to represent Japan under the Japanese names Son Kitei and Nan Shoryu because, at the time, their nation was occupied by Japanese forces.
Sohn, a fervent nationalist, always signed his Korean name in Berlin and, whenever asked where he was from, made it a point to explain that Korea was a separate nation. He won the gold medal, with Nam taking bronze, and at the medal ceremony Sohn had to endure the humiliation of having the Japanese flag raised and Japanese national anthem played to celebrate his victory. Sohn and Nam registered a silent protest by bowing their heads.
Sohn carried the South Korean flag in the opening ceremony of the 1948 London Games, and 40 years later in Seoul, aged 76, carried the Olympic torch into the stadium.
Missing Medallist
Another marathon man, Etienne Gailly, was a hero of the 1948 Games. The Belgian had never run a marathon before, but entered the stadium first. With barely a lap of the track to complete, his legs started to wobble and he slowed to a walk. He was overtaken by two rival athletes and fell to his knees on the home straight, but straightened up and staggered over the line to win bronze. His efforts put him in hospital and he missed the medal ceremony.
Briton Chris Brasher was first across the line in the 3,000 metres steeplechase at the 1956 Melbourne Games, but was initially disqualified for interfering with Norwegian Ernst Larsen. Brasher appealed and an anxious wait followed, as the jury did not meet until that evening's competition had concluded. When it did Brasher was reinstated, but the medal ceremony was postponed to the following day.
Brasher, much relieved, celebrated through the night and by his own admission was "blind drunk, totally blotto, with an asinine grin on my face" when he received his gold medal.
Wrong Anthem
Medals were hung around the necks of the victors for the first time at the 1960 Rome Games. A chain of laurel leaves was used, although coloured ribbon is now more common. Four years later in Tokyo, the Japanese anthem was played at the medal ceremony for Ethiopian Abebe Bikila, the first man to defend the marathon title, because the band did not know the winner's national anthem.
At the 1968 Mexico Games, black American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos - gold and bronze medal winners in the 200m - made a racial protest during the medal ceremony. They raised a black-gloved fist and hung their heads while the USA anthem played to protest against racial segregation in the US. They were subsequently expelled from the Olympic Village.
Four years later in Munich, the USA lost a controversial basketball final to the Soviets 51-50. When the horn sounded to end the game the USA were 50-49 in front, but USSR coach Vladimir Kondrashkin convinced match officials he had called a time-out and no-one had heard him. Three seconds were added to the clock and, in the confusion, Aleksandr Belov rose unopposed to score the winning points. The USA protested, did not attend the medal ceremony and did not accept the silver medal.
The medal ceremony for the men's coxless pairs rowing event at the Moscow Games in 1980 may have had observers fearing they had double vision. Both the gold and silver medal-winning teams were identical twins. East Germany's Bernd and Jorg Landvoigt were first and Russia's Yuri and Nikolai Pimenov second.
From the first modern Olympiad, in 1896, until the 1928 Games in Amsterdam, it was traditional for the medal presentations to take place during the closing ceremony. At Los Angeles, in 1932, the medals were awarded after each competition.
Designs change from Olympiad to Olympiad, but medals must be at least 60 millimetres in diameter and 3mm thick. The winner's medal is made of gold, using a minimum of six grams of fine gold, while the second and third-place medals are made of silver.
Controversial Ceremonies
There is a long history of controversial medal ceremonies at the Olympics. At the 1936 Berlin Games, Korean marathon runners Sohn Kee-chung and Nam Seung-yong were forced to represent Japan under the Japanese names Son Kitei and Nan Shoryu because, at the time, their nation was occupied by Japanese forces.
Sohn, a fervent nationalist, always signed his Korean name in Berlin and, whenever asked where he was from, made it a point to explain that Korea was a separate nation. He won the gold medal, with Nam taking bronze, and at the medal ceremony Sohn had to endure the humiliation of having the Japanese flag raised and Japanese national anthem played to celebrate his victory. Sohn and Nam registered a silent protest by bowing their heads.
Sohn carried the South Korean flag in the opening ceremony of the 1948 London Games, and 40 years later in Seoul, aged 76, carried the Olympic torch into the stadium.
Missing Medallist
Another marathon man, Etienne Gailly, was a hero of the 1948 Games. The Belgian had never run a marathon before, but entered the stadium first. With barely a lap of the track to complete, his legs started to wobble and he slowed to a walk. He was overtaken by two rival athletes and fell to his knees on the home straight, but straightened up and staggered over the line to win bronze. His efforts put him in hospital and he missed the medal ceremony.
Briton Chris Brasher was first across the line in the 3,000 metres steeplechase at the 1956 Melbourne Games, but was initially disqualified for interfering with Norwegian Ernst Larsen. Brasher appealed and an anxious wait followed, as the jury did not meet until that evening's competition had concluded. When it did Brasher was reinstated, but the medal ceremony was postponed to the following day.
Brasher, much relieved, celebrated through the night and by his own admission was "blind drunk, totally blotto, with an asinine grin on my face" when he received his gold medal.
Wrong Anthem
Medals were hung around the necks of the victors for the first time at the 1960 Rome Games. A chain of laurel leaves was used, although coloured ribbon is now more common. Four years later in Tokyo, the Japanese anthem was played at the medal ceremony for Ethiopian Abebe Bikila, the first man to defend the marathon title, because the band did not know the winner's national anthem.
At the 1968 Mexico Games, black American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos - gold and bronze medal winners in the 200m - made a racial protest during the medal ceremony. They raised a black-gloved fist and hung their heads while the USA anthem played to protest against racial segregation in the US. They were subsequently expelled from the Olympic Village.
Four years later in Munich, the USA lost a controversial basketball final to the Soviets 51-50. When the horn sounded to end the game the USA were 50-49 in front, but USSR coach Vladimir Kondrashkin convinced match officials he had called a time-out and no-one had heard him. Three seconds were added to the clock and, in the confusion, Aleksandr Belov rose unopposed to score the winning points. The USA protested, did not attend the medal ceremony and did not accept the silver medal.
The medal ceremony for the men's coxless pairs rowing event at the Moscow Games in 1980 may have had observers fearing they had double vision. Both the gold and silver medal-winning teams were identical twins. East Germany's Bernd and Jorg Landvoigt were first and Russia's Yuri and Nikolai Pimenov second.
Olympic Games: Famous Opening Ceremonies
Giant jellyfish, massed flamenco dancers, burnt doves and an army of lawnmowers have all featured in opening ceremonies at Olympic Games, as organisers try to creatively combine Olympic protocol with cultural references and technological innovations.
There was an opening ceremony at the first modern Olympiad, at Athens in 1896, but it bore little resemblance to the elaborate and extravagant ceremonies of today. Many elements of Olympic protocol have been introduced gradually over time, and now the opening ceremony must include:
* The opening speech by the host country's head of state.
* A parade of participants.
* A speech by the president of the organising committee of the Games.
* A speech by the International Olympic Committee president.
* The playing of the Olympic anthem.
* The entry and raising of the Olympic flag.
* The last stage of the Olympic torch relay and the lighting of the cauldron.
* The symbolic release of doves.
* The taking of the Olympic oath by an athlete.
* The taking of the Olympic oath by an official.
* The national anthem of the host country.
* An artistic programme.
Usually the content is kept secret until the last minute. The 1984 Los Angeles Games had a stuntman flying through the air on a jet-pack, and when decathlete Rafer Johnson lit the Olympic flame, it passed through the five Olympic rings on its way to the cauldron.
The 1992 Barcelona Games got underway to the sight of massed flamenco dancers, and paralympic archer Antonio Rebollo lit the Olympic flame by firing a blazing arrow into the cauldron. Boxer Mohammad Ali, a gold medallist at the 1960 Games, lit the flame and stole the show at Atlanta in 1996 and, four years later, Sydney employed tin men, an army of lawnmowers, stilt-walkers and giant jellyfish to convey the history, nature and culture of Australia.
The 2000 Games can also boast the most spectacular lighting of the Olympic flame. Cathy Freeman, who went on to win gold in the 400 metres in Sydney, appeared to walk on water as she carried the torch to the centre of a pool and lit a ring of fire. The cauldron then rose from the water and climbed on rails to the top of a waterfall, setting off a spectacular display of fireworks as it reached its destination at the top of the stadium.
Gyrating Goddesses
Running Greek statues and gyrating goddesses holding snakes featured in Athens as a mix of Olympic protocol and Greek culture came together to link the 3,000 years between the ancient Games and the first Olympiad of the 21st century.
The parade of participants has grown over the decades, with 22 nations represented at the 1908 Games and 202 in 2004. According to tradition, Greece, home of the ancient Games, leads the parade and the host country brings up the rear. The other nations parade in alphabetical order according to the language of the host country.
The Olympic anthem was created in 1896 for the first Games and was officially adopted by the IOC in 1958, while the Olympic flag, which depicts the five Olympic rings, was raised for the first time at Antwerp in 1920. The same year saw the Olympic oath for competitors was introduced, with officials taking the oath for the first time in 1972.
The release of doves - the symbol of peace - was also introduced in 1920. It historically took place before the arrival of the Olympic flame, but, following the demise of several birds sitting on the edge of the cauldron in Seoul, the symbolic release of doves now follows the lighting of the flame.
There was an opening ceremony at the first modern Olympiad, at Athens in 1896, but it bore little resemblance to the elaborate and extravagant ceremonies of today. Many elements of Olympic protocol have been introduced gradually over time, and now the opening ceremony must include:
* The opening speech by the host country's head of state.
* A parade of participants.
* A speech by the president of the organising committee of the Games.
* A speech by the International Olympic Committee president.
* The playing of the Olympic anthem.
* The entry and raising of the Olympic flag.
* The last stage of the Olympic torch relay and the lighting of the cauldron.
* The symbolic release of doves.
* The taking of the Olympic oath by an athlete.
* The taking of the Olympic oath by an official.
* The national anthem of the host country.
* An artistic programme.
Usually the content is kept secret until the last minute. The 1984 Los Angeles Games had a stuntman flying through the air on a jet-pack, and when decathlete Rafer Johnson lit the Olympic flame, it passed through the five Olympic rings on its way to the cauldron.
The 1992 Barcelona Games got underway to the sight of massed flamenco dancers, and paralympic archer Antonio Rebollo lit the Olympic flame by firing a blazing arrow into the cauldron. Boxer Mohammad Ali, a gold medallist at the 1960 Games, lit the flame and stole the show at Atlanta in 1996 and, four years later, Sydney employed tin men, an army of lawnmowers, stilt-walkers and giant jellyfish to convey the history, nature and culture of Australia.
The 2000 Games can also boast the most spectacular lighting of the Olympic flame. Cathy Freeman, who went on to win gold in the 400 metres in Sydney, appeared to walk on water as she carried the torch to the centre of a pool and lit a ring of fire. The cauldron then rose from the water and climbed on rails to the top of a waterfall, setting off a spectacular display of fireworks as it reached its destination at the top of the stadium.
Gyrating Goddesses
Running Greek statues and gyrating goddesses holding snakes featured in Athens as a mix of Olympic protocol and Greek culture came together to link the 3,000 years between the ancient Games and the first Olympiad of the 21st century.
The parade of participants has grown over the decades, with 22 nations represented at the 1908 Games and 202 in 2004. According to tradition, Greece, home of the ancient Games, leads the parade and the host country brings up the rear. The other nations parade in alphabetical order according to the language of the host country.
The Olympic anthem was created in 1896 for the first Games and was officially adopted by the IOC in 1958, while the Olympic flag, which depicts the five Olympic rings, was raised for the first time at Antwerp in 1920. The same year saw the Olympic oath for competitors was introduced, with officials taking the oath for the first time in 1972.
The release of doves - the symbol of peace - was also introduced in 1920. It historically took place before the arrival of the Olympic flame, but, following the demise of several birds sitting on the edge of the cauldron in Seoul, the symbolic release of doves now follows the lighting of the flame.
The Effect of Pollution on the 2008 Games in China
Air pollution is a problem in Beijing, yet fears it would disrupt the 2008 Olympic Games evaporated as the Games took place under relatively blue skies. There were legitimate concerns, given that Beijing was ranked as the 13th most polluted city in the world in 2004 and problems had since been exacerbated by the large amount of building work in the city, some of it generated by the Games themselves.
The International Olympic Committee (IOC) had insisted there was no health risk to athletes, but had warned there was a possibility some events, such as the marathon, open water swimming and triathlon would have to be postponed or rescheduled to a time of day when pollution levels were lower.
Ethiopian Haile Gebrselassie, the marathon world record holder, did withdraw from the marathon in Beijing. He has asthma and was afraid China’s air pollution would damage his health if he ran such a long distance, so competed in the 10,000 metres instead.
Cleanest Air in a Decade
Yet efforts made to clear the skies over Beijing for the Olympics paid off, according to the city’s environmental authority. China’s capital had its cleanest air in a decade, and the Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau said the improvement was largely the result of temporary measures that banned cars from the roads and closed factories during the Games.
The environmental authority claimed the density of major pollutants was cut by 45 per cent in August. There were 14 days with the best air quality (level one) and only one day rated at the worst quality (level three). Typically, Beijing has less than a handful of days with level one air quality.
To accommodate the athletes, city officials removed two million vehicles from the roads, stopped almost all construction and shut down scores of factories for a two-month period from July until after the Paralympics on 17th September. The air in Beijing is typically two to three times more polluted than in most Western countries, but these measures saw the levels of major pollutants like carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide fall to levels normally found in cities in developed countries.
Car Ownership Up
The measures were temporary, however, and did not counteract the root problem of pollution. New cars are added to Chinese roads at a rate of 1,000 each day and a rising number of families are buying second cars.
Air pollution was not the only environmental threat to the Beijing Olympics, as the Chinese had to clear tonnes of algae that was blocking the Olympic sailing course in the eastern city of Qingdao.
The People’s Liberation Army sent in 10,000 troops to lift over half a million tonnes of the thick, heavy weed from the coastline. China claimed the algae are a rare, though naturally occurring phenomenon, but environmentalists blamed pollution. A protection zone was set up using a boom and netting and the clean-up allowed Olympic sailing teams to train and compete in Qingdao’s waters, but in other areas the bright green algae polluted the beaches.
The International Olympic Committee (IOC) had insisted there was no health risk to athletes, but had warned there was a possibility some events, such as the marathon, open water swimming and triathlon would have to be postponed or rescheduled to a time of day when pollution levels were lower.
Ethiopian Haile Gebrselassie, the marathon world record holder, did withdraw from the marathon in Beijing. He has asthma and was afraid China’s air pollution would damage his health if he ran such a long distance, so competed in the 10,000 metres instead.
Cleanest Air in a Decade
Yet efforts made to clear the skies over Beijing for the Olympics paid off, according to the city’s environmental authority. China’s capital had its cleanest air in a decade, and the Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau said the improvement was largely the result of temporary measures that banned cars from the roads and closed factories during the Games.
The environmental authority claimed the density of major pollutants was cut by 45 per cent in August. There were 14 days with the best air quality (level one) and only one day rated at the worst quality (level three). Typically, Beijing has less than a handful of days with level one air quality.
To accommodate the athletes, city officials removed two million vehicles from the roads, stopped almost all construction and shut down scores of factories for a two-month period from July until after the Paralympics on 17th September. The air in Beijing is typically two to three times more polluted than in most Western countries, but these measures saw the levels of major pollutants like carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide fall to levels normally found in cities in developed countries.
Car Ownership Up
The measures were temporary, however, and did not counteract the root problem of pollution. New cars are added to Chinese roads at a rate of 1,000 each day and a rising number of families are buying second cars.
Air pollution was not the only environmental threat to the Beijing Olympics, as the Chinese had to clear tonnes of algae that was blocking the Olympic sailing course in the eastern city of Qingdao.
The People’s Liberation Army sent in 10,000 troops to lift over half a million tonnes of the thick, heavy weed from the coastline. China claimed the algae are a rare, though naturally occurring phenomenon, but environmentalists blamed pollution. A protection zone was set up using a boom and netting and the clean-up allowed Olympic sailing teams to train and compete in Qingdao’s waters, but in other areas the bright green algae polluted the beaches.
The Olympic Flame
The Olympic flame is one of the most instantly recognisable symbols of the Games. Its origins date back to the ancient Games, from 776BC to 393AD, when a sacred flame burned at the altar of Zeus. It was not a part of the early modern Olympics.
At the 1928 Amsterdam Games, a tower designed by Jan Wils was placed inside the stadium and, for the first time, the Olympic flame was lit at the top of it and remained lit for the duration of the Games. Yet it was another eight years before the Olympic torch and relay, now an integral part of the Games, appeared for the first time.
The torch relay was based on an idea by Dr Carl Diem. A lighted torch was carried from Olympia to the site of the 1936 Games in Berlin through seven countries - Greece, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Austria and Germany. The total journey was more than 3,000 kilometres.
Traditional Ritual
Now, some months before the opening of each Games, the Olympic torch is lit in front of the Temple of Hear on the grounds of Olympia, where the ancient Games took place. According to the traditional ritual, the flame is lit by a Holy Priestess using the sun's rays and a parabolic mirror. The priestess then enters the ancient Olympic stadium with the torch and hands it to the first runner of the torch relay. The runner passes by the tomb where the heart of Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympics, is buried, to begin the long journey.
At the 1964 Games in Tokyo, Yoshinori Sakaï, a student born not far from Hiroshima on 6th August 1945 - the day the first atomic bomb was released - lit the Olympic flame in honour of the victims.
In 1976, the Olympic flame arrived by air, as technology played a role in the torch relay for the first time. The sacred flame was electronically transmitted from Athens to Ottawa by satellite and from there runners transported it to Montreal.
Sacrilegious Act
Only a few days after the flame had been lit, it was extinguished by torrential rain. It was quickly reignited, thanks to a nearby official with a cigarette lighter, but this was considered a sacrilegious act. Luckily, organisers had kept a reserve flame, originating at Olympia, burning in case of an accident, and the impure fire was soon extinguished and replaced by a genuine Olympic flame.
At the 1988 Games in Seoul, the torch was run into the stadium by 76-year-old Sohn Kee-chung, the winner of the 1936 marathon. Sohn had been forced to enter the Berlin Games using a Japanese name because Korea was occupied by Japan.
Athlete Cathy Freeman had the honour to light the Olympic flame at the opening ceremony of the Sydney Games in 2000. It was a symbol of the desire to reconcile the white and Aboriginal populations of Australia. Ten days later, Aborigine medal hopeful Freeman won the 400 metres final before an ecstatic crowd.
At the 1928 Amsterdam Games, a tower designed by Jan Wils was placed inside the stadium and, for the first time, the Olympic flame was lit at the top of it and remained lit for the duration of the Games. Yet it was another eight years before the Olympic torch and relay, now an integral part of the Games, appeared for the first time.
The torch relay was based on an idea by Dr Carl Diem. A lighted torch was carried from Olympia to the site of the 1936 Games in Berlin through seven countries - Greece, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Austria and Germany. The total journey was more than 3,000 kilometres.
Traditional Ritual
Now, some months before the opening of each Games, the Olympic torch is lit in front of the Temple of Hear on the grounds of Olympia, where the ancient Games took place. According to the traditional ritual, the flame is lit by a Holy Priestess using the sun's rays and a parabolic mirror. The priestess then enters the ancient Olympic stadium with the torch and hands it to the first runner of the torch relay. The runner passes by the tomb where the heart of Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympics, is buried, to begin the long journey.
At the 1964 Games in Tokyo, Yoshinori Sakaï, a student born not far from Hiroshima on 6th August 1945 - the day the first atomic bomb was released - lit the Olympic flame in honour of the victims.
In 1976, the Olympic flame arrived by air, as technology played a role in the torch relay for the first time. The sacred flame was electronically transmitted from Athens to Ottawa by satellite and from there runners transported it to Montreal.
Sacrilegious Act
Only a few days after the flame had been lit, it was extinguished by torrential rain. It was quickly reignited, thanks to a nearby official with a cigarette lighter, but this was considered a sacrilegious act. Luckily, organisers had kept a reserve flame, originating at Olympia, burning in case of an accident, and the impure fire was soon extinguished and replaced by a genuine Olympic flame.
At the 1988 Games in Seoul, the torch was run into the stadium by 76-year-old Sohn Kee-chung, the winner of the 1936 marathon. Sohn had been forced to enter the Berlin Games using a Japanese name because Korea was occupied by Japan.
Athlete Cathy Freeman had the honour to light the Olympic flame at the opening ceremony of the Sydney Games in 2000. It was a symbol of the desire to reconcile the white and Aboriginal populations of Australia. Ten days later, Aborigine medal hopeful Freeman won the 400 metres final before an ecstatic crowd.
The Olympic Games and Politics
Rule 51 of the Olympic charter states that "no kind of demonstration or political, religious or racial propaganda is permitted in any Olympic sites, venues or other areas", but it's a forlorn hope. For decades the Games have been used to make political gain.
Adolf Hitler, Führer of the Third Reich, wanted the 1936 Games in Berlin to prove his theory of Aryan racial superiority, but was thwarted by African-American Jesse Owens, who was the star performer and won four gold medals. Germany and Japan were not invited to the 1948 London Games because of their roles in World War II and, although invited, the Soviets did not show up. The USSR competed for the first time at the 1952 Helsinki Games, but by then Cold War tensions led to Soviet athletes being housed in a separate village.
Boycotts hit the 1956 Melbourne Games. Egypt, Iraq and Lebanon pulled out in protest at the Suez Crisis, while Spain, Switzerland and Holland withdrew over the Soviet invasion of Hungary. China boycotted in protest at the presence of Taiwan.
Racial Protest
South Africa was excluded from the 1964 Games in Tokyo due to its racist apartheid regime and did not return until 1992 in Barcelona. Protests against racial segregation in the USA followed at the 1968 Mexico Games, where black American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos - gold and bronze medal winners in the 200 metres - raised black-gloved fists and hung their heads while their national anthem played.
Palestinian terrorists stormed the Olympic village at the 1972 Games in Munich, killed two Israeli athletes, took nine others hostage and demanded the release of prisoners from Israel. The horror culminated in a shootout and all nine Israeli hostages, five of the eight terrorists and a German policeman were killed. The Games resumed after a 34-hour suspension.
The 1976 Montreal Games were boycotted by 27 African nations in protest at the International Olympic Committee's failure to exclude New Zealand, whose rugby union team had played in racially segregated South Africa. The Canadian government granted China's request to revoke the visas of Taiwanese athletes - already in Montreal - and, although the IOC protested, the Taiwanese left. China then stayed at home anyway, annoyed that the IOC had admitted Taiwan.
Major boycotts
Most of the capitalist world - led by the USA, West Germany and Japan - boycotted the 1980 Moscow Games following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Four years later, the USSR retaliated and led a boycott of the 1984 Los Angeles Games by 14 socialist nations, claiming the Olympics were being used to generate commercial profits.
North Korea boycotted the 1988 Seoul Games after its request to act as a co-host was refused, and Cuba, Ethiopia and Nicaragua withdrew in sympathy. At the 1996 Games in Atlanta a pipe bomb exploded in Centennial Olympic Park during a rock concert. Two people were killed and 111 injured.
China's human rights record was called into question prior to the 2008 Beijing Games. There was talk of boycotts after what began as peaceful protest marches led by monks in Tibet's largest city, Lhasa, escalated into full-scale rioting. The anti-Chinese demonstrations marked the 49th anniversary of a failed Tibetan uprising against Chinese rule. Tibet's government-in-exile, based in India, claimed Chinese security forces cracked down on unrest and about 140 people were killed, but Chinese authorities claimed 19 people were killed by rioters.
Adolf Hitler, Führer of the Third Reich, wanted the 1936 Games in Berlin to prove his theory of Aryan racial superiority, but was thwarted by African-American Jesse Owens, who was the star performer and won four gold medals. Germany and Japan were not invited to the 1948 London Games because of their roles in World War II and, although invited, the Soviets did not show up. The USSR competed for the first time at the 1952 Helsinki Games, but by then Cold War tensions led to Soviet athletes being housed in a separate village.
Boycotts hit the 1956 Melbourne Games. Egypt, Iraq and Lebanon pulled out in protest at the Suez Crisis, while Spain, Switzerland and Holland withdrew over the Soviet invasion of Hungary. China boycotted in protest at the presence of Taiwan.
Racial Protest
South Africa was excluded from the 1964 Games in Tokyo due to its racist apartheid regime and did not return until 1992 in Barcelona. Protests against racial segregation in the USA followed at the 1968 Mexico Games, where black American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos - gold and bronze medal winners in the 200 metres - raised black-gloved fists and hung their heads while their national anthem played.
Palestinian terrorists stormed the Olympic village at the 1972 Games in Munich, killed two Israeli athletes, took nine others hostage and demanded the release of prisoners from Israel. The horror culminated in a shootout and all nine Israeli hostages, five of the eight terrorists and a German policeman were killed. The Games resumed after a 34-hour suspension.
The 1976 Montreal Games were boycotted by 27 African nations in protest at the International Olympic Committee's failure to exclude New Zealand, whose rugby union team had played in racially segregated South Africa. The Canadian government granted China's request to revoke the visas of Taiwanese athletes - already in Montreal - and, although the IOC protested, the Taiwanese left. China then stayed at home anyway, annoyed that the IOC had admitted Taiwan.
Major boycotts
Most of the capitalist world - led by the USA, West Germany and Japan - boycotted the 1980 Moscow Games following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Four years later, the USSR retaliated and led a boycott of the 1984 Los Angeles Games by 14 socialist nations, claiming the Olympics were being used to generate commercial profits.
North Korea boycotted the 1988 Seoul Games after its request to act as a co-host was refused, and Cuba, Ethiopia and Nicaragua withdrew in sympathy. At the 1996 Games in Atlanta a pipe bomb exploded in Centennial Olympic Park during a rock concert. Two people were killed and 111 injured.
China's human rights record was called into question prior to the 2008 Beijing Games. There was talk of boycotts after what began as peaceful protest marches led by monks in Tibet's largest city, Lhasa, escalated into full-scale rioting. The anti-Chinese demonstrations marked the 49th anniversary of a failed Tibetan uprising against Chinese rule. Tibet's government-in-exile, based in India, claimed Chinese security forces cracked down on unrest and about 140 people were killed, but Chinese authorities claimed 19 people were killed by rioters.
The Olympic Games and Violence
At 4.10am on the 5th September 1972, Palestinian terrorists entered the Olympic Village in Munich and raided the Israeli team headquarters at 31 Conollystrasse. The terrorists murdered wrestling coach Moshe Weinberg (33) and weightlifter Yosef Romano (32) as they attempted to escape and took another nine Israelis hostage, demanding the release of 236 political prisoners.
A worldwide television audience watched in horror and a crowd of around 80,000 onlookers built up around the scene as the drama unfolded over the next 21 hours. It culminated in a shootout at Fürstenfeldbruck military air base. All nine Israeli hostages, a German policeman and five of the eight Black September guerrillas were killed.
The Olympic truce had been brutally violated and serious questions were raised about the handling of the crisis by the Munich police.
Games Resume
Incredibly, as the tense stand-off between terrorists and police was played out in front of television viewers, the Games were allowed to carry on. The crisis had raged for six hours when the Olympics resumed with canoe and kayak heats. An hour later International Olympic Committee president Avery Brundage announced: "The Games must go on."
It was not until 3.51pm, more than 11 hours into the crisis and after the Egyptian basketball team had refused to play their match against the Philippines, that the Games were eventually suspended.
Meanwhile, the police and German government bungled attempts to rescue the hostages. A bid to storm the building was abandoned when it became clear the terrorists could follow what was happening on television.
Mission Aborted
When the terrorists requested a jet to fly them out of Germany, a plan was hatched to lay on a decoy plane filled with police. But just seconds before two helicopters containing the terrorists and their hostages landed at Fuerstenfelbruck airport, police aborted the mission, claiming they were not trained for the task.
Only five police snipers were positioned at the airport and when they opened fire on the terrorists, German police officer Anton Fliegerbauer was killed by a stray bullet. Armoured police cars called in late as reinforcements were caught in traffic as crowds clogged the roads in an effort to see the drama.
The terrorists killed the athletes by throwing a grenade into one helicopter and firing a round of bullets into the other. The victims were wrestlers Mark Slavin (18) and Eliezaar Halfen (24), wrestling referee Yosef Gottfreund (40), weightlifters David Berger (28) and Ze'ev Friedman (28), weightlifting coach Yaakov Springer (50), shooting coach Kehat Schur (53), fencing referee Andre Spitzer (27) and athletics coach Amitzur Shapira (40).
Cruel Twist
In a final, cruel twist, government spokesman Conrad Ahlers claimed the operation had been a success and this message was relayed to the world by the media. Hours later the disastrous truth emerged.
Five of the Palestinian gunmen were killed and three captured, but the survivors spent just 53 days in German custody and were never tried. On 29 October, 1972, a Palestinian commando hijacked a Lufthansa jet, which had taken off in Beirut, and demanded the release of the captured guerrillas. The German authorities caved in quickly and the terrorists were handed over to Libya in exchange for the freedom of the hostages.
Israeli assassination squads hunted down and killed two of the surviving Munich terrorists, but the third, Jamal Al Gashey, is alive and in hiding in Africa after surviving numerous attempts on his life.
As for the Munich Games, they were suspended and a memorial service was held in the main stadium. In defiance of the terrorists, the IOC ordered the competitions to resume after a pause of 34 hours.
A worldwide television audience watched in horror and a crowd of around 80,000 onlookers built up around the scene as the drama unfolded over the next 21 hours. It culminated in a shootout at Fürstenfeldbruck military air base. All nine Israeli hostages, a German policeman and five of the eight Black September guerrillas were killed.
The Olympic truce had been brutally violated and serious questions were raised about the handling of the crisis by the Munich police.
Games Resume
Incredibly, as the tense stand-off between terrorists and police was played out in front of television viewers, the Games were allowed to carry on. The crisis had raged for six hours when the Olympics resumed with canoe and kayak heats. An hour later International Olympic Committee president Avery Brundage announced: "The Games must go on."
It was not until 3.51pm, more than 11 hours into the crisis and after the Egyptian basketball team had refused to play their match against the Philippines, that the Games were eventually suspended.
Meanwhile, the police and German government bungled attempts to rescue the hostages. A bid to storm the building was abandoned when it became clear the terrorists could follow what was happening on television.
Mission Aborted
When the terrorists requested a jet to fly them out of Germany, a plan was hatched to lay on a decoy plane filled with police. But just seconds before two helicopters containing the terrorists and their hostages landed at Fuerstenfelbruck airport, police aborted the mission, claiming they were not trained for the task.
Only five police snipers were positioned at the airport and when they opened fire on the terrorists, German police officer Anton Fliegerbauer was killed by a stray bullet. Armoured police cars called in late as reinforcements were caught in traffic as crowds clogged the roads in an effort to see the drama.
The terrorists killed the athletes by throwing a grenade into one helicopter and firing a round of bullets into the other. The victims were wrestlers Mark Slavin (18) and Eliezaar Halfen (24), wrestling referee Yosef Gottfreund (40), weightlifters David Berger (28) and Ze'ev Friedman (28), weightlifting coach Yaakov Springer (50), shooting coach Kehat Schur (53), fencing referee Andre Spitzer (27) and athletics coach Amitzur Shapira (40).
Cruel Twist
In a final, cruel twist, government spokesman Conrad Ahlers claimed the operation had been a success and this message was relayed to the world by the media. Hours later the disastrous truth emerged.
Five of the Palestinian gunmen were killed and three captured, but the survivors spent just 53 days in German custody and were never tried. On 29 October, 1972, a Palestinian commando hijacked a Lufthansa jet, which had taken off in Beirut, and demanded the release of the captured guerrillas. The German authorities caved in quickly and the terrorists were handed over to Libya in exchange for the freedom of the hostages.
Israeli assassination squads hunted down and killed two of the surviving Munich terrorists, but the third, Jamal Al Gashey, is alive and in hiding in Africa after surviving numerous attempts on his life.
As for the Munich Games, they were suspended and a memorial service was held in the main stadium. In defiance of the terrorists, the IOC ordered the competitions to resume after a pause of 34 hours.
World Records Achieved at the Olympics
The high altitude of Mexico City, which is 2,240 metres above sea level, made the 1968 Olympics difficult for athletes in the endurance events. Yet the altitude, which meant the air contained 30 per cent less oxygen than at sea level, was an advantage in events that needed a brief but intense effort. As a result, a host of sprinting and jumping world records fell.
Other factors may have had a bearing too. The use of a synthetic material on the athletics track was a first, and, while events were timed both manually and electronically, for the first time the electronic time was the official one. Certainly, many of the records stood the test of time.
American Bob Beamon shattered the long jump world record by 55 centimetres with a leap of 8.90 metres and almost 23 years went by before Mike Powell bettered it. The USA 4x400m relay team of Lee Evans, Larry James, Ron Freeman and Vince Matthews cut 3.44 seconds off the world record with two minutes 56.16secs and it stood for almost 24 years until another USA team improved on it by 0.42secs at the Barcelona Olympics.
Americans Dominant
In the individual 400m, Evans ran 43.86secs - a world record for almost 20 years, Tommie Smith became the first man to break 20secs in the 200m (19.83secs) and Jim Hines, another American, set a 100m world record of 9.95secs that stood for almost 15 years.
The triple jump world record fell five times during the Mexico City Games, with Soviet Viktor Saneyev's 17.39m coming out on top. It was 36cm better than the pre-Games world record of Poland's Józef Schmidt. Brit David Hemery broke the 400m hurdles world record (48.1secs) and the 4x100m relay world record, broken by Jamaica in the heats, fell to the USA team of Hines, Ronnie Ray Smith, Charlie Greene and Melvin Pender (38.2secs).
A glut of women's world records fell too. American Wyomia Tyus took the 100m (11.08secs), Poland's Irena Szewinska the 200m (22.5secs), Romania's Viorica Viscopoleanu the long jump (6.82m) and the 4x100m relay world record fell to the USA's Margaret Bailes, Mildrette Netter, Barbara Ferrell and Tyus (42.8secs).
Seven for Spitz
At the Munich Olympics four years later, Mark Spitz made a one-man assault on the record books. He broke seven world records on his way to the same number of gold medals - all within the space of eight days.
The 200m butterfly (2:00.70), 200m freestyle (1:52.78), 100m butterfly (54.27secs) and 100m freestyle (51.22secs) records all fell to Spitz. In the relays, David Edgar, John Murphy, Jerry Heidenreich and Spitz took the 4x100m freestyle record (3:26.42), John Kinsella, Fred Tyler, Steve Genter and Spitz the 4x200m freestyle record (7:35.78), and Mike Stamm, Thomas Bruce, Heidenreich and Spitz, who swam the butterfly leg, the medley relay record (3:48.16).
One of the most impressive world records of recent times was set by American sprinter Michael Johnson in the 200m at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics. Johnson had clocked 19.66secs at the US Olympic trials to shave six hundreds of a second off the 17-year-old world record set by Italian Pietro Mennea at altitude in Mexico City. In the Olympic final he ran a phenomenal 19.32secs to defeat Namibia's Frank Fredericks by four metres. The record still stands 12 years on.
Other factors may have had a bearing too. The use of a synthetic material on the athletics track was a first, and, while events were timed both manually and electronically, for the first time the electronic time was the official one. Certainly, many of the records stood the test of time.
American Bob Beamon shattered the long jump world record by 55 centimetres with a leap of 8.90 metres and almost 23 years went by before Mike Powell bettered it. The USA 4x400m relay team of Lee Evans, Larry James, Ron Freeman and Vince Matthews cut 3.44 seconds off the world record with two minutes 56.16secs and it stood for almost 24 years until another USA team improved on it by 0.42secs at the Barcelona Olympics.
Americans Dominant
In the individual 400m, Evans ran 43.86secs - a world record for almost 20 years, Tommie Smith became the first man to break 20secs in the 200m (19.83secs) and Jim Hines, another American, set a 100m world record of 9.95secs that stood for almost 15 years.
The triple jump world record fell five times during the Mexico City Games, with Soviet Viktor Saneyev's 17.39m coming out on top. It was 36cm better than the pre-Games world record of Poland's Józef Schmidt. Brit David Hemery broke the 400m hurdles world record (48.1secs) and the 4x100m relay world record, broken by Jamaica in the heats, fell to the USA team of Hines, Ronnie Ray Smith, Charlie Greene and Melvin Pender (38.2secs).
A glut of women's world records fell too. American Wyomia Tyus took the 100m (11.08secs), Poland's Irena Szewinska the 200m (22.5secs), Romania's Viorica Viscopoleanu the long jump (6.82m) and the 4x100m relay world record fell to the USA's Margaret Bailes, Mildrette Netter, Barbara Ferrell and Tyus (42.8secs).
Seven for Spitz
At the Munich Olympics four years later, Mark Spitz made a one-man assault on the record books. He broke seven world records on his way to the same number of gold medals - all within the space of eight days.
The 200m butterfly (2:00.70), 200m freestyle (1:52.78), 100m butterfly (54.27secs) and 100m freestyle (51.22secs) records all fell to Spitz. In the relays, David Edgar, John Murphy, Jerry Heidenreich and Spitz took the 4x100m freestyle record (3:26.42), John Kinsella, Fred Tyler, Steve Genter and Spitz the 4x200m freestyle record (7:35.78), and Mike Stamm, Thomas Bruce, Heidenreich and Spitz, who swam the butterfly leg, the medley relay record (3:48.16).
One of the most impressive world records of recent times was set by American sprinter Michael Johnson in the 200m at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics. Johnson had clocked 19.66secs at the US Olympic trials to shave six hundreds of a second off the 17-year-old world record set by Italian Pietro Mennea at altitude in Mexico City. In the Olympic final he ran a phenomenal 19.32secs to defeat Namibia's Frank Fredericks by four metres. The record still stands 12 years on.